1. See William Overholt, The Rise of China, pp. 400-401, for more on America's "quirky perceptions." Back to China and Chinese Part 1

2. Guiseppe Castiglione, an Italian Jesuit Missionary, was a painter in the court of Emperor Qianlong. He was known by his Chinese name, Lang Shining. The image is a detail of a larger handscroll that depicts Qianlong when he was 21. The original, like many Chinese national art treasures, was taken out of China. This painting belongs to the Cleveland Museum of Art. Back to China and Chinese > Chinese Government

3. The Qing Dynasty had sowed the seeds of its own destruction when the imperial government allowed reforms that included establishing new institutions such as a Supreme Court in 1906 and a parliament (the first National Assembly) in 1910. But the changes occurred too late to save the monarchy. The state of Chinese government, economy, and society in general, were in ruins and almost hopelessly backward as the Twentieth Century opened. Back to China and Chinese > Chinese Government

4. The Chinese Republic had adopted the western solar calendar in place of the ancient Chinese lunar calendar. Back to China and Chinese > Chinese Government